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Jul 27
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Through the history the man has always hoped the boost of three main characteristics: physical, metaphysical and intellectual. From the physical viewpoint he invented and developed all kind of tools: levers, wheels, cams, pistons, etc., until achieving the sophisticated machines existing nowadays. Regarding the metaphysical aspect, the initial celebration of magical-animistic rituals led to attempts, either real or literary, for creating ex nihilo life: life from inert substance. The most actual approaches involve the cryoconservation of deceased people for them to be returned to life in the future; the generation of life at the laboratories by means of cells, tissues, organs, systems or individuals created from previously frozen stem cells is also currently aimed. The third aspect considered, the intellectual one, is the most interesting here. There have been multiple contributions, since devices that increased the calculi ability as the abacus appeared, until the later theoretical proposals for trying to solve problems, as the Ars Magna by Ramón Lull. The first written reference of the Artificial Intelligence that is known is The Iliad, where Homer describes the visit of the goddess Thetis and her son Achilles to the workshop of Hephaestus, god of smiths: At once he was helped along by female servants made of gold, who moved to him. They look like living servant girls, possessing minds, hearts with intelligence, vocal chords, and strength. However, the first reference of Artificial Intelligence, as it is currently understood, can be found in the proposal made by J. McCarthy to the Rockefeller Foundation in 1956; this proposal hoped for funds that might support a month-lasting meeting of twelve researchers of the Dartmouth Summer Research Project in order to establish the basis of the, McCarthy-named, Artificial Intelligence. Although the precursors of the Artificial Intelligence (S. Ramón y Cajal, N. Wienner, D. Hebb, C. Shannon and J. McCulloch, among many others), come from multiple science disciplines, the true driving forces (A. Turing, J. von Neumann, M. Minsky, T. Gödell,…) emerge in the second third of the XX century with the apparition of certain tools, the computers, capable of handling fairly complex problems. Some other scientists, as J. Hopfield or J. Holland, proposed at the last third of the century some biology-inspired approaches that enabled the treatment of complex problems of the real world that even might require certain adaptive ability. All this long and productive trend of the history of the Artificial Intelligence demanded an encyclopaedia that might give expression to the current situation of this multidisciplinary topic, where researches from multiple fields as neuroscience, computing science, cognitive sciences, exact sciences and different engineering areas converge. This work intends to provide a wide and well balanced coverage of all the points of interest that currently exist in the field of Artificial Intelligence, from the most theoretical fundamentals to the most recent industrial applications. Multiple researches have been contacted and several notifications have been performed in different forums of the scientific field dealt here. All the proposals have been carefully revised by the editors for balancing, as far as possible, the contributions, with the intention of achieving an accurately wide document that might exemplify this field. A first selection was performed after the reception of all the proposals and it was later sent to three external expert reviewers in order to carry out a double-blind revision based on a peer review. As a result of this strict and complex process, and before the final acceptance, a high number of contributions (80% approximately) were rejected or required to be modified. The effort of the last two years is now believed to be worthwhile; at least this is the belief of the editors who, with the invaluable help of a high number of people mentioned in the acknowledgements, have managed to get this complete encyclopaedia off the ground. The numbers speak for themselves: 233 articles published that have been carried out by 442 authors from 38 different countries and also revised by 238 scientific reviewers. The diverse and comprehensive coverage of the disciplines directly related with the Artificial Intelligence is also believed to contribute to a better understanding of all the researching related to this important field of study. It was also intended that the contributions compiled in this work might have a considerable impact on the expansion and the development of the body of knowledge related to this wide field, for it to be an important reference source used by researchers and system developers of this area. It was hoped that the encyclopaedia might be an effective help in order to achieve a better understanding of concepts, problems, trends, challenges and opportunities related to this field of study; it should be useful for the research colleagues, for the teaching personnel, for the students, etc. The editors will be happy to know that this work could inspire the readers for contributing to new advances and discoveries in this fantastic work area that might themselves also contribute to a better life quality of different society aspects: productive processes, health care or any other area where a system or product developed by techniques and procedures of Artificial Intelligence might be used.
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Biomedical Spectroscopy, fortuitously the first section in this comprehensive encyclopedia, is one of the youngest branches of analytical chemistry. Throughout much of their history, medicine and spectroscopy have evolved quite separately, yet in the new millennium the two solitudes are closing the gap that has separated them for so long as they cross-pollinate each other increasingly. Although spectroscopy, by its very nature, has always had an interdisciplinary focus, the recent marriage between spectroscopy and medicine is only now beginning to bear fruit. It is unfortunate that the word ‘‘chemical’’ has acquired such a bad reputation in the lay press and yet the same public is increasingly captivated by ‘‘natural biochemicals’’. So what are natural biochemicals, and what is a natural substance? To answer this question we have to go back almost 20 billion years to when the universe arose with a cataclysmic explosion that hurled hot, energy-rich subatomic particles throughout space. Gradually, as the universe evolved, the various chemical elements were created, including those in all living organisms on earth. Hence, we humans are literally made of stardust. The unique molecules from which living organisms are constructed are called biomolecules and were selected during the course of evolution for their fitness to perform specific functions. It is therefore quite legitimate to ask what the purpose or the specific biological function of a given biomolecule in a living organismmay be.When examined separately these biomolecules conform to all the physical and chemical laws that describe the behavior of inanimate matter, and yet living things possess unique properties not displayed by collections of inanimate molecules, thus presenting a distinctive challenge to the analytical chemist and to the biospectroscopist alike. Medicine, known as ‘‘the art of science of healing disease’’, is more art than science to some, where the patient is treated as a whole and not as the site in which a particular disease has chosen to manifest itself. However, to many others medicine is a life science that rests firmly upon a foundation of biological sciences, which in turn, trace their origin to the basic physical sciences of chemistry, physics and mathematics. Sadly, in spite of our success to combat disease and illness, there are still health care problems, for which there is little we can do. Even if the best of contemporary medicine were universally available, regardless of financial barriers, cancer would continue to kill, rheumatoid arthritis would still cripple, and Alzheimer’s disease would continue to render many elderly people helpless. Although modern medicine appears powerless to reduce the impact of these diseases, largely due to our inability to treat them successfully, the paucity of effective diagnostic techniques plays a significant role in the continued occurrence of these diseases.Early diagnosis is an important component of preventive medicine, and spectroscopic methods play an increasingly important role in biodiagnostics. Medical biospectroscopy uses the entire arsenal of electromagnetic radiation, from the high-energy end (gamma rays) down to the low-energy end (radio waves), to probe individual biomolecules and indeed the whole human body.
Only the sea is like a human being; the sky is not, nor the earth. But the sea is always moving; always something deep in itself is stirring it. It never rests; it is always wanting, wanting, wanting.
The Encyclopedia of American Journalism explores in depth those journalists and their organizations who have observed and recorded the events of American history. In 1930, John H. Finley of the New York Times said that journalists were “the historians of the present tense” and he called journalism “the religion of democracy” (NYT, Dec. 19, 1930, p. 24). Although Finley made these observations well before the advent of television, computers, the Internet, and many of the other modern media that we now take for granted, his assessment of the importance of journalists and journalism still remains relevant in our own time. A free society requires good journalists, and their job is demanding, and always has been, if for no other reason than that their work covers the entire scope of human endeavor. To achieve their goals, having a sense of history is no less critical than having the ability to communicate clearly and effectively. Yet there are many components in modern media and modern living that distort, or even ignore, history, and these forces inevitably affect journalism. If it is true, as has been said, that journalists write the “fi rst draft of history,” then it is also true that they are often accused of lacking knowledge of the past. The Encyclopedia of American Journalism provides an antidote to such criticism by offering readers an account of journalism’s past that is relevant to the twenty-fi rst century. As it makes clear, journalism has a rich history, one whose origins trace back to the American colonies. It is the full scope of that history that helps us to understand better the extraordinary changes that have transformed journalism in recent decades. The 405 articles in this Encyclopedia, which vary in length from 500 to 5,000 words, touch on a wide range of subjects, many of which have been too often neglected or given short shrift in other reference works. Although presented in alphabetical order, the entries cover seven major themes.
According to many scholars, ancient Greece and Rome provided the foundations of Western culture. More than two millennia later, myths of both civilizations are still being studied for their rich storytelling and insight into the cultures that spawned them. Their continued retelling speaks to their universal appeal. This revised edition of “Greek and Roman Mythology A to Z” illuminates the mythology at the core of those civilizations’ beliefs. Entries of this title include: the most famous Greek and Roman gods and goddesses; the most memorable heroes and heroines; important topics in mythology and culture, such as household gods and Olympic Games; places such as Athens, Parnassus, and Rome; and, more.
An introduction to the history, government, culture, people, and aspects of daily life of ancient Greece and its pervasive and enduring influence on western civilization.
More than three million children are the victims of various types of abuse each year. “The Encyclopedia of Child Abuse, Third Edition” is a comprehensive guide to the characteristics and causes of abuse, its impact on children, different types of abuse, aid and treatments for both the abused and the abuser, legal and social issues, and a great deal more. Now thoroughly revised and expanded, more than 400 entries explain all the key issues and topics related to child abuse. A lengthy, completely updated introduction explains the history of how children have been viewed and mistreated by society from ancient times to the present. Appendixes have been updated to provide current statistics and accurate information about helpful resources. Topics include: Abandonment, Bullying, Corporal punishment, Family violence, Infanticide, Kidnapping, Mental injury, Parent’s rights, Runaways, and Trauma.
Drug abuse is a longstanding and painful problem that can lead to devastating effects for users, addicts, and their families and friends. Studies show that a large percentage of junior high and high school students have been exposed to, or have experimented with, illegal drugs. The most commonly abused drugs are alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine, but as trends change, new drugs become more and more popular. Abuse of methamphetamines and prescription drugs is currently on the rise, and though anti-drug messages are distributed widely, young people continue to try drugs for the first time every day.With approximately 200 entries, “The Encyclopedia of Drug Abuse” covers the full range of illegal and legal drugs and how they impact society. Taking a global perspective, this new title looks at the worldwide drug trade and the effects of drug abuse in countries and cultures around the world, as well as in the United States. This comprehensive reference examines various types of drugs and how they function, risks, causes and consequences of abuse, social issues, psychiatric issues, means of prevention, law enforcement efforts, and drugs in special social groups. Appendixes provide statistics, directories of helpful groups and organizations, and resources for further research.Topics include: accidental overdose deaths; barbiturates; club drugs; drug dependence; gangs and drugs; narcotics; opiates; pregnancy and substance abuse; prescription drug abuse; treatment; and, violence.
A collection of resources for understanding and coping with the complexities of modern health and social concerns. It provides an objective overview of the essential facts and wider social ramifications that have been established by experts about the afflictions covered.
The quality of “monumentality” is attributed to the buildings of few historical epochs or cultures more frequently or consistently than to those of the Roman Empire. It is this quality that has helped to make them enduring models for builders of later periods. This extensively illustrated book, the first full-length study of the concept of monumentality in Classical Antiquity, asks what it is that the notion encompasses and how significant it was for the Romans themselves in molding their individual or collective aspirations and identities. Although no single word existed in antiquity for the qualities that modern authors regard as making up that term, its Latin derivation–from monumentum, “a monument”–attests plainly to the presence of the concept in the mentalities of ancient Romans, and the development of that notion through the Roman era laid the foundation for the classical ideal of monumentality, which reached a height in early modern Europe. This book is also the first full-length study of architecture in the Antonine Age–when it is generally agreed the Roman Empire was at its height. By exploring the public architecture of Roman Italy and both Western and Eastern provinces of the Roman Empire from the point of view of the benefactors who funded such buildings, the architects who designed them, and the public who used and experienced them, Edmund Thomas analyzes the reasons why Roman builders sought to construct monumental buildings and uncovers the close link between architectural monumentality and the identity and ideology of the Roman Empire itself.
