This collection of some fifty essays on Asian philosophy is designed as a reference volume for students, scholars and others who require more than just a simple sketch of ‘oriental’ ideas. It has been complied with the intention of doing justice to the arguments, ideas and presuppositions of philosophers working largely outside the confines of western philosophical traditions. institutions world-wide in an exploration of the great diversity of the philosophical These traditions are of quite widespread interest in the West, but their general appreciation falls far short of their vitality, their rigour and their immense that this volume will also prove useful to those working within any one of the Asian traditions who wish to acquire a foundation in other such traditions. the ideas discussed in this volume have a natural home only within a limited part of the globe. But the distinction between Asian and western philosophical traditions is a blurred one. Japanese philosophy, for example, has for a century or so had a very deep interest in the philosophers of Germany and of France; before that, Japanese philosophers had found inspiration in systems of thought that had come from India and China. Chinese philosophy, as another example, is far from ignorant of and uninspired by the philosophers of Europe and of America. And contemporary Indian philosophers are just as at home with Russell, Frege, Wittgenstein and Quine as with Sa kara or Aurobindo. Islamic they are as much some of them have worked west as Spain. The tradition of ancient Persian thought is, surprisingly to some, still alive and well among the Parsi thinkers of present-day Canada.

Welcome to American Indian Religious Traditions: An Encyclopedia. These volumes are the culmination of an enormous corners of both academia and Indian work was to compile a set of articles academic religious traditions is undertaken at the beginning reference work both sensitive to and reflective of the Native communities upon The entries in these volumes, therefore, do not approach religion as an isolated experience political, economic, and social lives, placing their individual topics within the wider social and political context. These academics and community members, as well as non-Native scholars who have demonstrated themselves sensitive to the concerns of Native communities and aware of the political implications of proud to present entries written by the top scholars in the field, whose scholarly endeavors are a to Native cultural survival. We have that Native voices are respected in these volumes, encouraging our authors to consult with elders, community managers whenever possible. encouraged that more than half of the entries in these volumes are of Native descent. For much of its early history, scholarship communities was done by non-Native authors who had little knowledge of the internal workings of from the perspective of outsiders, work misrepresentedNative religious life. This encyclopedia seeks to rectify this problem by presenting Native spiritual traditions as they are understood by people within the communities themselves.

As in the first edition of the Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy (1978), this second edition differs markedly from other works of reference dealing with the history of American foreign policy. Instead of bringing together batches of information on many topics, it offers in-depth, original, interpretive essays commissioned from distinguished scholars who are experts in concepts, themes, large ideas, significant movements, and distinctive policies relations. Unlike textbook writers, they do recount in detail major episodes. These essays may be used to supplement, in history textbooks, encyclopedias. essays offer a unique approach to the study of America’s but shorter than monographs. Their length has allowed authors sufficient space topics deeply without including the usual scholarly paraphernalia. schools because they can quickly find and read authoritative accounts written in clear, straightforward prose in three easily available volumes rather than search through many books and academic journals, often scattered in distant constructed bibliographies for more information and for leads to other sources.

Folk traditions of the college and university campus. The academic world consists of two principal subcultures—student and faculty—which, like all groups sharing common of folk belief, custom, folk speech, legend, jocular narrative, and ritual. a college education leads to a job in “the real world”) fall into two arenas of potential anxiety: class attendance and examinations. In both contexts, certain excuses (such as “my grandmother is dying”) are believed to be more efficacious than others in obtaining Virtually universal among American college students in their first two years of university work is the belief that there is a standard waiting period for a professor who does not arrive punctually. The most common system requires students to wait five minutes for an a full professor, although one also hears of ten minutes for a non-Ph.D., twenty for a period if necessary for a full professor. This set of obligation has yet to be found in the formal student rules of any American university), but group: in this case, other students. University students in scheduled time, an acknowledged manipulation of time called der akademische Viertel quarter [hour]).

The origins of education stretch back millions of years to the development of the vertebrates, which instinctively how to find food and how to defend themselves education has consistently proved critical to individual and the entire led to extinction—of many human as well asEducation of primitive vertebrates as well as modern man begins at childbirth, as parents gradually impart knowledge, skills and values efficiently and make self-enhancing decisions. In early civilizations, were educated informally, within the family unit, in preparation life—namely, man as hunter and fighter and the home. As humans evolved into social beings and congregated in herds for mutual protection, education learned expanded. But education evolved in well—and not always for the betterment of the species. Enculturation, or institutionalization, of education broadened and cultural indoctrination to the basic skills taught for the preservation and propagation of the species. God-centered religions followers were naturally weaker inferior to men. Ancient Greece and Rome reserved education for men, although equal educational rights for women in concept of the ideal state. In the Christian Bible, Saint Paul urged Christian promised virtuous women the reward of education in actually undermined the original goals of education—survival of the species. Like lemmings, humans in many societiesdeaths in metaphorical seas—as French armies marched to their destruction on the Russian steppes in the early 1800s and as the German and Japanese pursued their own national destructions in World War II. Whether for good or evil, all modern education encompasses enculturation that teaches children the values of their society and the most prized forms of behavior in it. Churches have practiced such education for centuries, and state-operated schools have followed suit to a greater or lesser degree, in direct proportion to the extent of individual freedom in each society.

The American Economy: A Historical Encyclopedia provides detailed information about the formation and development its continued importance. Historically, economic issues policy has influenced social, cultural, political, and events from colonial times to the present. Economic policy has shifted many times over the course of the British colonies mercantilist system in which all trade benefited the mother country. After the American Revolution, the restrictions it caused that system to fail.Delegates meeting at the Constitutional Convention agreed that the federal government must have the power to tax. A only imports, not exports or direct income, proved to be decisive in the development of domestic industry. imports) during Republic; after the War of 1812, a shift to protective tariffs occurred. These tariffs continued to increase Morrill Tariff. After the Civil War, tariff rates remained high, against foreign manufacturers. The extreme wealth accumulated Rockefeller stood in sharp contrast to the poverty of Americans, especially new immigrants who crowded awareness of this economic inequity resulted in a movement primary source of tax revenue with a direct personal income tax. However, Congress lacked constitutional passed a constitutional amendment to allow direct taxation. Republicans finally agreed to lower the tariff rates if the amendment passed, thinking that the states would fail to pass The plan failed, and ratification in 1913 of the Sixteenth that has influenced capital accumulation, investment, and since. the tariff rates and increasing personal income because of World War I. After that conflict, European countries empires raised their to their industries. Consequently, under the burden of overvaluation of company worth and market overstimulation due to purchases on margin. Within nine months of the crash,Congress passed the Hawley- Smoot Tariff, which raised tariff rates to a record high.Meanwhile, the Federal Reserve Board increased interest rates, contracting the money supply. The net effect was a prolonged ended when the United States entered World War II. The Great Depression and World War II mark a shift in followed the economic philosophy of John Maynard Keynes, who advocated deficit spending during periods of financial to initiate programs that politicians had traditionally the first time, the federal government assumed the role of employer to thousands of the country’s unemployed Corps and Works Progress Administration created jobs. Social Security was established to promote early retirement and addition, the federal projects such as the Rural Electrification Administration and the Tennessee Valley Authority to improve the lives of Americans in rural or poverty-stricken areas.

In the summer of 1787 delegates from the various states met in Philadelphia; because they succeeded in their task, we now call their assembly the the framing of the Constitution of the United States. The year 1987 marks bicentennial of the Constitutional Convention. This Encyclopedia is intendedbicentennial. No encyclopedia on the Constitution has heretofore existed. This work seeks to fill the need for a single comprehensive reference work treating multidisciplinary way. The Constitution is a legal document, but it is also an institution: a charter of the American as a body of law, the Constitution in today’s understanding, nearly two centuries’ worth of court decisions interpreting the charter. Charles Evans Hughes, then governor New York, made this point pungently in a 1907 speech: ‘‘We are under a Constitution, but the Constitution is what the judges say it is.’’ Hughes’s to be chiefly the product of judicial decisions, it is also what Presidents say it is—and legislators, and police officers, and ordinary citizens, too. In the final analysis today’s Constitution is the product of the whole political system whole history of the many peoples who have become a nation. ‘‘Constitutional law is history,’’ wrote Professor Felix Frankfurter in 1937, ‘‘But equally true is it that American history is constitutional law.’’ Thus an Encyclopedia of the American Constitution would be incompleteif it did not seek to bridge the disciplines of history, law, and political science. Both in identifying subjects and in selecting authors we have sought to build those bridges. The subjects fall into five general categories: doctrinal concepts of constitutional law (about fifty-five percent of the total words); people (about fifteen percent); judicial decisions, mostly of the Supreme Court of the United States (about fifteen percent); public acts, such as statutes, treaties, and executive orders (about five percent); and historical periods (about ten percent). (These percentages are exclusive of the appendices—printed at the end of the final volume—and bibliographies.) The articles vary in length, from brief definitions of terms to treatments of major subjects of constitutional doctrine, which may be as long as 6,000 words, and articles on periods of constitutional history, which may be even longer. A fundamental concept like ‘‘due process of law’’ is the subject of three 6,000-word articles: Procedural Due Process of Law (Civil), Procedural Due Process of Law (Criminal), and Substantive Due Process of Law. In addition, there is a 1,500- word article on the historical background of due process of law. The standard 6,000 words; but each principal component of the amendment—Freedom Speech, Freedom of the Press, Religious Liberty, Separation of Church and State—is also the subject of a 6,000-word article. There are also other, shorter articles on other aspects of the amendment. The reader will find an article on almost any topic reasonably conceivable. At the beginning of the first volume there is a list of all entries, to spare the reader from paging through the volumes to determine whether particular entries exist. This list, like many another efficiency device, may be a mixed blessing; we commend to our readers the joys of encyclopedia-browsing.

Over the last 15 years, business history has exploded as a discipline, while much business also was made during the boom economy of the 1990s. As a result, the need for a business as a means of chronicling these events and their antecedents, stretching back to American independence. is the first serious attempt in several decades to describe the major business events, institutions, will find entries crossing all of the traditional companies, legislation, and movements that significant impact on American history by a short bibliography that will enable the reader to pursue the topic further. They reference the best known or most general books or place for a reader to look up information. But in about the entries to date, although they have because of their importance. A of the volume. the making, we have tried to make the entries in cases, this required arbitrary decisions about material was included and excluded. The guiding principle used here was to include material reader to pursue the subject in greater detail. of the more recent material may stand the in the future. Not all material once centuries well.

The Encyclopedia of Algorithms aims to provide the researchers, students, and practitioners of algorithmic research with a mechanism to efficiently and accurately find the names, definitions, key results, and further readings of important algorithmic problems. The work covers a wide range of algorithmic areas, and each algorithmic area is covered by a collection of entries. An encyclopedia entry is an in-depth mini-survey of an algorithmic problem and is written by an expert researcher. The entries for an algorithmic area are compiled by an area editor to survey the representative results in that area and can materials of a course in the area. The Encyclopedia does not use the format of a conventional long survey for several reasons. A conventional survey takes a handful of individuals too much time to write and is difficult to update. An encyclopedia entry contains the same kinds of information as in a conventional survey, but an encyclopedia entry is much shorter and is much easier for readers to absorb and for editors to update. Furthermore, an algorithmic area is surveyed by a collection of entries which together provide a considerable amount of up-to-date information about the area, while the writing and updating up the work. This reference work will be updated on a regular basis and will evolve towards primarily an Internet-based medium to allow timely updates and fast search. If you have feedback regarding a particular entry, please feel free to communicate directly with the author or the area editor of that entry. If you are interested in authoring an entry, please contact whole, please contact me at kao@northwestern.edu. The credit of the Encyclopedia goes to the area editors, the entry authors, the entry reviewers, and the project editors at Springer, including Jennifer Evans and Jennifer Carlson.

The period dealt withby this volume covers both the birth and the growth of air transport, for there were no airlines before World War I except those operated by Zeppelin airships. For the airlines, therefore, the 1920's were as much a pioneering period as 1903-12 was for aviation itself, and many were the historic flights and famous men and aircraft to be included can only be a representative one, and for the omission of any reader's favourite type I apologise in advance.